CASE STUDIES IN ECOTOURISM
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DESCRIPTION
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"Ding" Darling Wildlife Refuge is home to hundreds of species of local and migratory waterbirds. Each year, thousands of tourists visit the parks to observe the birds in their native and, during the winter, non-native habitats. Human disturbance due to birdwatching threatens these birds, disrupting their foraging behavior and reducing the overall size of their habitat. In order to stem human disturbance, measures must be taken to reduce the number of visitors to the refuge. |
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Tortuguero National Park and the coastal waterways of Costa Rica are home to a small population of West Indian Manatees. Prior to 1970, the manatee population flourished in this area, until several changes in the manatee habitat caused a drastic reduction in their numbers. The building of a national canal and an increase in ecotourism led to greater boat traffic, which killed or injured a large number of manatees. Today, manatee numbers are dwindling and, until boat traffic through manatee habitat decreases, they will always be in danger of local extinction. |
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In the Amazonian Lowlands of Ecuador, Hoatzins (Opisthocomus hoazin) are widely sought after by avid birdwatchers. Each year, tourists come to view the Hoatzin in its natural habitat in the Cuyabeno Wildlife Preserve. In this study, Antje Mullner and his colleagues show that disturbance by human has an adverse effect on Hoatzin chicks, disrupting hormonal response and reducing survival during fledging. As predation and death rates exceed survival rate of Hoatzin chicks, the Hoatzin species remains in danger of local extinction due to ecotourism |
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| The potential contribution of ecotourism to African wild dog Lycaon Pictus conservation in South Africa | Ecotourism may have benefits for endangered species as well. In this study, Peter Lindsey and his colleagues assess the possible economic benefits of establishing reserves and charging visitors for tours of the natural habitat of African ild dog, Lycaon Pictus. It is a solution with both positive and negative outcomes, yet potential income from ecotourism may reduce the economic impact of the wild dog on the surrounding human-inhabited areas. |
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“Effects of Ecotourism of Distribution of Waterbirds in a Wildlife Refuge”
Figure 1: “Ding” Darling NWF
Figure 2: Birdwatching in Darling NWF
A study performed by Klein et al. showed that feeding waterbirds responded adversely to human disturbance, abandoning foraging sites upon hearing human voices and movements. The study, performed at the Darling National Wildlife Refuge in Florida, involved observing species of waterbirds at specific distances from an 8-km dike, used by tourists, both on foot and in their vehicles. The experimenters tallied the number of individual birds present in 41 strip-plots, each 50 meters wide and 20 meters long, 30% of which were visible from the dike trail (Klein 1455). Of the 49 bird species seen over the course of one year, 19 permanently occupied the area surrounding the dike. The remaining 30 species were migrant waterbirds, and their arrival corresponded with the highest influx of tourists to the area (January-April).
Figure 3: Anhinga (Anhinga Anhinga)
The perennial bird species did not respond to varying levels of human traffic in the area around the dike, presumably because the constant presence of humans and the permanence of their habitat have desensitized the local birds to disturbances. Brown Pelicans, Anhingas (Anhinga Anhinga), Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias), Green Herons (Butorides virescens), Tricolored Herons (Egretta tricolor), Spotted Sandpipers (Actitis macularia), and several other species were unfazed by human disturbance, while others, including Red Knots (Calidriscanutus), Black Skimmers (Rhynchops niger), Greater (Tringa melaneleuca) and Lesser Yellowlegs (T. flavipes), and Green-winged Teals, remained a far distance from the dike. Other species did not occupy the 0-20 meter zones, but were evenly dispersed through the rest of the plot (Klein 1457).
Figure 4: Black Skimmer (Rhynchops Niger)
Of the migrant species, all migrant ducks, Blue-winged Teals (A. discors), and Northern Pintails (Anas acuta), and several other species of bird remained far from the dike path throughout the winter months. During late winter, many species became less sensitive to human encroachment, yet still remained a good distance away, as seen with American Wigeons (A. Americana), 60% of which remained at least 60 meters from the dike (Klein 1458).
Figure 5: Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias)
The number of cars and humans disturbing the habitat on a single day also affected the foraging patterns of these 49 waterbird species. When daily car volume exceeded 450, many more species avoided the dike than on days with 0-300 cars.
Figure 6: Brown Pelican
From this study, it is evident that presence of humans in certain habitats of the Darling National Wildlife Refuge caused the area to be devoid of waterbird species (Klein 1461). It is clear that different species have varying sensitivies to human disturbance and, therefore, require habitats in which they can forage without being driven off due to encroachement. Klein offers several suggestions as to how humans can reduce the impact of ecotourism on the observed bird species of the Darling NWR. These include:
Figure 5: Endangered bird species sign
David Smethurst and Bernard Nietschmann
Figure 1: Tortuguero National Park
Figure 2: Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica
The West Indian Manatee (Trichechusmanatus) once vastly populated the Caribbean and West-Atlantic, but with the influx of higher boat traffic due to increased ecotourism, its range has significantly diminished. Prior to 1970, the manatee flourished throughout the Caribbean, northern South America, southern North America, and, particularly relevant to this study, the rivers and estuaries around Costa Rica, and the waterways of Panama. By the late 1970’s, local residents recalled that manatee numbers had significantly declined in Tortuguero, Barra del Colorado, and Boca del Dragòn. From 1963 until 1972, the government constructed a canal system from Limòn to Barra del Colorado, which would have led to a significant increase in boat traffic through the area, for the purpose of ecotourism, transportation, and fishing. Manatees are often mortally injured when they are hit by outboard motors, which are prevalent in canal waterways. Therefore, the construction a waterway that increases boat traffic provides an adequate explanation for the significant decrease in the West Indian Manatee population (Smethurst 2).
Figure 3: West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus)
In a four-year study (June 1996 – June 1998) involving observation of manatee populations of the Tortuguero, Costa Rica area, David Smethurst and Bernard Nietschmann found that the West Indian Manatee predominantly avoided areas of higher boat traffic and foraged in secluded areas, such as side rivers and small creeks. The erratic movement of the manatees indicates that they do not occupy a permanent habitat, especially when foraging areas are disturbed by human intruders. Incorporating data from several different sources – boat observations and interviews with residents – the researchers found that manatee densities were highest in areas where environmental degradation was lowest (Smethurst 5). In the areas with the highest density – Agua Fria and Caño Servulo – boat traffic and upriver forestation are minimal compared with other areas. Furthermore, Caño Servulo, in which the most West Indian Manatees were observed, is the only nationally protected waterway of the areas observed (Smethurst 6).
Figure 4: Tour boat from Hotel Jungle Lodge in Limon, outside of Tortuguero
(Source: http://www.1-costaricalink.com/hotels_limon_costa_rica/hotel_jungle_lodge_costa_rica.htm)
Boat traffic through manatee habitats is a serious problem for the protection of habitats and foraging areas. In a three-day observation of the Tortuguero town dock, Smethurst and Nietschmann and determined the waterway to possess an average number of 223 boats per day. These boats, used for ecotourism and other purposes, are detrimental to manatee populations for a number of reasons. First, the sound of engines scares the manatees and drives them away from foraging areas. Second, the boats often hit the manatees, injuring the animal either with the hull or the outboard motor. Not surprisingly, the areas with the highest manatee densities (Agua Frìa and Caño Servulo) also had the lowest traffic. Only 28 out of 887 total boats passed through Agua Frìa; in Caño Servulo, where 22.2% of the manatees were observed, there was no boat traffic throughout the entire study (Smethurst 6).
Figure 5: Tour Boat on waterway in Limon, Costa Rica
The conclusions drawn by Smethurst and Nietschmann echo those of Klein et al.: increase in human traffic – in this particular scenario, via boats through various waterways – causes a decrease in total habitat area for wildlife. The West Indian Manatee is in danger of local extinction due to damage from boats. The shrinking of habitats and overall West Indian Manatee populations is a great cause for concern, and their plight is another unfortunate side effect of ecotourism.
"Exposure to ecotourism reduces survival and affects stress response in hoatzin chicks (Opisthocomus hoazin)"
In a study conducted by Antje Mullner et al. ecotourism was shown to have significantly detrimental effects on the reproductive success of the Hoatzin and the survival of hoatzin chicks. Hoatzins, a colorful rainforest bird species, are popular among bird enthusiasts for their vibrant plumage. These, as well as countless other species’ inhabiting the rainforest, are subject to frequent human disturbance because they occupy a pristine landscape fraught with beautiful wildlife. In temperate and aquatic environments, such as Darling Wildlife Refuge and the Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica, the negative effects of ecotourism are easily quantifiable. Observing the presence of species in areas of a habitat with high volumes of visitors allows a researcher to determine the effect that human disturbance has on a species (Klein et al.1455). Fewer studies have been performed on species in tropical rainforests. Therefore, there is much less data about the effects of visitors on species and their environments.
In this particular study, the researchers examine the Cuyabeno Wildlife Preserve, a protected rainforest area in the Amazon of Ecuador that is 6,000 km in diameter. The Preserve first experienced ecotourism in the late 80’s and, since 1992, the number of tourists has grown without restraint due to lack of regulations on visitor numbers (Mullner 3). Parts of the Reserve receive nearly 4,000 visitors per year, while the summer months see hundreds of visitors per day (Mullner 4). Through extensive observation and interviews with local tourist guides, Mullner et al. determined that, prior to the influx of ecotourists, the hoatzin bred more regularly than at present.
The hoatzin is a territorial bird, living in small groups or pairs and defending a territory approximate 5,000-8,000 m 2, with 3-7 individuals occupying every square km. Mullner explains the breeding and parenting methods in this excerpt from the article:
“Breeding is closely linked to the beginning of the wet season and starts in April or May. Hoatzins build simple platform nests on branches overhanging the water, and 72% of nest sites in the Cuyabeno Lakes are situated on isolated flooded trees, which are well protected against non-flying and non-swimming predators. The modal clutch size is two eggs and the incubation period lasts 32 days; in 75% of broods only one chick survives until fledging (A.M., unpubl. data). If not disturbed, hatchlings stay in the nest 14–20 days and then begin to climb into the surrounding foliage. First flights occur at 7 weeks of age, and individuals reach full flight capabilities at about 10 weeks. As an adaptation to life in inundated forests, hoatzin chicks prior to fledging show an extraordinary escape behaviour when approached by a predator: they jump into the water and may dive 5–15 m in an attempt to escape. With the help of their wing claws they climb another tree, but do not return to their nest site. Instead, the adults normally find the young and feed them until fledging (Mullner 4).”
Mullner et al. studied a total of 214 hoatzin nests – 131 undisturbed, 83 exposed to tourists. The researchers found that the incubation and reproductive success for hoatzin was similar in both groups. During the fledging period, however, nest survival was much higher in the undisturbed nests than those exposed to ecotourism (Mullner 8). Lower survival rate as a consequence of human exposure means that areas with high volumes of visitors will experience rapid population decrease and have a higher risk of local extinction. The graph below shows the data and results for survival rate during fledging period for both
Hoatzin chicks in the tourist-exposed nests had a hormonal reaction twice that of undisturbed nests. It was shown that when juvenile hoatzins were handled by humans, both undisturbed and tourist-exposed chicks secreted the chemical corticosterone. However, the tourist-exposed chicks secreted twice as much as the undisturbed chicks during the first 20-30 minutes after exposure.In conclusion, this study shows that even a low number of tourists can have a detrimental effect on tropical rainforest wildlife. In order to stem tourists from intruding on fragile habitats, wildlife reserves, national parks, and governments must restrict or limit ecotourism in tropical environments, particularly during breeding seasons for species that must remain undisturbed (Mullner 12).
"The potential contribution of ecotourism to African wild dog Lycaon Pictus conservation in South Africa"
African Wild dogs are an endangered species, constantly at risk of local extinction from destruction of their native habitats at the hands of detrimental farming and land-clearing. Carnivores, like wild dogs, are particularly at risk of extinction or displacement because they threaten local farming by killing livestock and game (Lindsey 340). Because local inhabitants of lands occupied by wild dogs consider the animals to be an economic burden, conservation efforts are minimal, if any exist at all. In this study, Peter A. Lindsey and his collegues assess the possible benefits of promoting ecotourism and charging tourists to see the wild dogs in an effort to reduce the economic impact on the surrounding community and, hence, conserve the remaining Lycaon Pictus population. Using money from ecotourism as financial incentives to maintain the habitat of Lycaon Pictus and preserve the trophic structure of its ecosystem.
Using contingent evaluation surveys, interviews of potential tourists, ranch owners, locals, and conservationists, Lindsey and his colleagues found that substantial revenue could be gained from any wild dog-based tourism, particularly during denning season when the dogs are in fixed habitats and guided tours could showcase the animals with minimal disturbance (Lindsey 347). Surveying of low to medium budget tourists done at Kruger National Park and Pilanesburg National Park (in particular, the Djuma and Ngala Game preserves) showed that tourists were willing to pay an amount ranging from $12-59 in national parks and much more on private reserves. If the attraction of these private reserves and the close contact with the wild dogs that they offer can bring high-budget tourists, revenues from ecotourism would be much higher than those at national parks (Lindsey 348). The estimated cost of reintroduction of a single wild dog was calculated to be approximately $8,678 - a seemingly high figure, yet with greater incomes from the high volume of tourists in Kruger and Pilanesburg, this cost could be drastically reduced. To reduce the opportunity cost of preserving the natural habitat of Lycaon Pictus, ecotourism is the best option. It is clearly the most profitable use of the wild dog's habitat and could greatly subsidize the loss of income suffered by local inhabitants.
There are inherent negatives, however, in relying on ecotourism for conservation of the African Wild Dog. Depending on the sensitivity to human disturbance by different Lycaon Pictus populations, the reproductive habits and rearing of offspring may be disrupted by intruders. Human intrusion of habitats can cause the wild dog's to change dens and, in some cases, increase the risk of predation by larger carniovers, such as lions.
In conclusion, ecotourism is a mixed blessing in the effort to conserve the natural habitat of Lycaon Pictus. Increased ecotourism, in conjunction with education and awareness programs and protection from poachers, is one viable conservation solution for a severely endangered species.